Erhältlich als Buch in italienischer Übersetzung unter dem Titel: Heidegger, Hölderlin e John Cage übersetzt und mit einem Nachwort von Agostino Di Scipio, Semar Publishers, Rom 2000, 21x16 cm, 88 pp. ISBN 88-7778-077-0. Erhältich auch auf Englisch in HTML. Siehe auch meinen Essay The Quivering of Propriation: A Parallel Way to Music. |
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1. Worum es gehtDer andere Anfang - die Zugehörigkeit zum Seyn - die Kunst als geschichtsstiftend - Hölderlin als der Dichter der Deutschen - Überwindung der Metaphysik - Verwandlung des Menschenwesens - das sind nur einige der großen Titel, die einem begegnen, wenn man Heidegger liest. Diese große Gestalt des Denkens im 20. Jahrhundert verkörpert ein äußerstes Denken und zieht an, gerade weil eine Diagnose der Weltlage sowie eine Überwindung derselben im Seinsdenken gesetzt wird. Die Diagnose lautet: Seinsvergessenheit. Die Überwindung mündete in eine Zugehörigkeit des Menschenwesens zum Seyn. Heidegger selber ist ein Denker des Übergangs, der diese große Verwandlung mit aller Kraft und allem Opfer vorbereiten will. Über dieses großartige Denken wirft sich auch ein großer Schatten, der einen Namen trägt: Nationalsozialismus, wohl das häßlichste Wort der deutschen Geschichte. Heidegger war - zumindest für einige Zeit und in seiner eigenen Weise - ein engagierter Nationalsozialist. Fraglich bleibt, ob er sich von diesem Engagement je klipp und klar distanziert oder Reue und Scham empfunden, geschweige denn sich mit seiner eigenen Verstrickung im Nationalsozialismus ausreichend und vor allem denkerisch auseinandergesetzt hat. Das Denken hätte Scham und Reue durchleiden müssen statt unnachgiebig zu bleiben.Von einem einzigen Dichter hat sich Heidegger sehr viel versprochen. Auf Hölderlin hat er sein Denken über die Kunst und das Kunstwerk zugeschnitten. Wie läßt sich von Hölderlin als dem Dichter der Deutschen noch reden nach dem geschichtlichen Desaster des Nationalsozialismus? Zum Nationalsozialismus gehören bei Heidegger zwei weitere Begriffe, die regelmäßig in seinen Texten gleich auftauchen, wenn von diesem die Rede ist: Amerikanismus und Bolschewismus. Andere würden diese Kapitalismus bzw. Sozialismus nennen, und sie hätten vielleicht damit sachlich angemessenere Begriffe verwendet, zumal der Sozialismus schon im Wort Nationalsozialismus enthalten ist. Ist Heideggers Rede vom Nationalsozialismus, Amerikanismus und Bolschewismus in verschiedenen Vorlesungen der dreißiger und vierziger Jahre auf der Höhe seines Denkens, oder stellt sie einen allzu unmittelbaren und beunruhigenden Kurzschluß seines seinsgeschichtlichen Denkens mit den politischen Geschehnissen seiner Zeit dar? Hat Heidegger den Nationalsozialismus je ausreichend gedacht?(1) Wenn nicht, wäre das wohl der größte Vorwurf, den man diesem großen Denker machen könnte. Das Deutsche ist - noch fünfzig Jahre nach dem Zusammenbruch des Nationalsozialismus - ein anrüchiges Wort, das im Ausland Mißtrauen erweckt. Daß die Deutschen heute eine geschichtliche Mission zu erfüllen hätten, würde immer noch nur Befremdung und Angst auslösen. Viele Heutige würden meinen, es sei sehr gut, daß die Deutschen ins Element des Amerikanismus eingetaucht worden sind, und das nicht nur, weil die deutsche Wirtschaft nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg floriert hat, sondern weil der sogenannte Amerikanismus eine wesentlich demokratischere Haltung der Deutschen mit sich gebracht hätte. Heideggers Einsatz für eine umwälzende Änderung der Laufbahn der abendländischen Geschichte und gar für einen Sprung in einen anderen Anfang muß solange auf großes Mißtrauen stoßen, als das häßliche Wort Nationalsozialismus im Verhältnis zu seinem Denken nicht geklärt ist. Was ist der seinsgeschichtliche Ort des Nationalsozialismus? Hat Heidegger je diesen Ort bestimmt, oder hat er sich lediglich in sibyllinischen Bemerkungen versteckt? Was heißt es, wenn Heidegger von der "geschichtlichen Einzigkeit des Nationalsozialismus"(2) spricht? Ist das schwarzer Humor? Besteht die geschichtliche "Einzigartigkeit"(3) des Nationalsozialismus darin, das Deutsche in einer Orgie der Selbstvernichtung zerstört zu haben? War die versuchte Vernichtung der Juden der erfolgreiche geschichtliche Selbstmord des Deutschen als einer eigenständigen geschichtlichen Größe? Ist an der Nachkriegsgeschichte der deutschen Philosophie eben diese Selbstvernichtung, d.h. Niedergang, abzulesen? Da sich Heidegger mit dem Wort Amerikanismus gegen alles Amerikanische abgegrenzt hatte, war es ihm unmöglich, sich auf einen Amerikaner je einzulassen. Er ist 1933 als Deutscher auf der Seite der Deutschen geblieben, während andere seiner Generation, durch die Not dieser Zeit gedrungen, in die USA ausgewandert sind. Die europäischen Intellektuellen haben die amerikanische Kunst tief beeinflußt, und vor allem die deutschen Intellektuellen haben das amerikanische Denken zutiefst geprägt. Dort florierte in den vierziger Jahren der 'deutsche Geist' in der 'Kolonie'. Er hauste in einem Turm auf Manhattan. Ich möchte deshalb den Namen John Cage - ein Künstler und Intellektueller, der tief in europäischen Traditionen verwurzelt ist, wenn auch mit denen brechend - ins Spiel bringen als ein Gegengewicht und Alternative zum deutschen Namen Hölderlin. Am Anfang ist nicht abzusehen, wohin dieses Wagnis führen wird, vorausgesetzt, daß Cage als bahnbrechender amerikanischer Komponist auf dem gleichen Rang steht mit dem deutschen Dichter Hölderlin. Es ließe sich wohl keinen größeren künstlerischen Gegensatz vorstellen als der zwischen Cage und Hölderlin. Das sind zwei verschiedene Welten, vielleicht zwei verschiedene geschichtliche Geschicke. Global hat Heidegger 1966 seine Einschätzung der modernen Kunst im Spiegel-Interview so geäußert:
Um letztlich zu einer Auseinandersetzung zwischen Heidegger und Cage zu gelangen, und das auf einer philosophischen Ebene, müssen wir zuerst das Grundwerk legen in einer Auslegung von Kernstücken des Heideggerschen Kunstverständnisses, d.h. seiner Ortsbestimmung der Kunst(5). Das Kunstwerk gehört in den Übergang zum anderen Anfang. Daher müssen wir mehr vom anderen Anfang wissen. 2. Der andere Anfang in den Beiträgen zur PhilosophieDie Beiträge aus den Jahren 1936-1938 stellen Heideggers großen Versuch einer Selbstklärung dar. Hier wird der Steinbruch ausgesteckt, aus dem heraus Heidegger in den folgenden Jahren seine Schriften anreichern wird. Alle wesentlichen Versatzstücke seines Denkens nach Sein und Zeit werden hier in der kehrigen Stille einer dreijährigen Besinnung privatissimo herausgearbeitet. Deshalb sind die Beiträge heute die Fundgrube, um zu entziffern, auf was das Seinsdenken letztlich hinaus will. Es steht laut Heidegger einiges auf dem Spiel, nämlich, die Entscheidung "über Geschichte oder Geschichtsverlust, d.h. über Zugehörigkeit zum Seyn oder Verlassenheit im Unseienden" (GA65:100). Verlassenheit hieße der "Übergang zum technisierten Tier"(6), Geschichte hingegen "Erschrecken im Jubel der Seinszugehörigkeit" (GA65:99).
In der hochentwickelten Technik sind die heutigen Menschen - wir - vom Seyn verlassen. Wir haben nicht einfach vergessen, an etwas zu denken, sondern sind selbst vom Seyn in seinem Sichverbergen vergessen. Das Denken für Heidegger kann deshalb nichts anderes sein als eine Vorbereitung darauf, daß das Menschenwesen vom Seyn angenommen wird. Dies wäre das Ereignis als Vereignung des Menschenwesens in eine Zugehörigkeit zum Seyn. Was sollten wir davon halten? Könnte sich das Ereignis ereignen in der Geschichte des Abendlands? Es könnte sich nur dann - wenn überhaupt - ereignen, wenn die Seinsverlassenheit das ernötigende Geschick des abendländischen - und inzwischen des planetarischen - Menschen wäre. Aber wie können wir erfahren, was die Not unserer geschichtlichen Lage ausmacht? Nur indem wir Heidegger nach-denken. Die Nach-denkenden sind selten und werden wohl auch so bleiben. Gerade dies hat Heidegger auch gesehen und spricht deshalb in den Beiträgen von den "Seltenen" und den "Wenigen". Es wäre zu kurz gegriffen, wollte man dies als Elitismus auslegen. Das Ereignis geschähe nur durch einen Sprung, der das Da des Daseins gründend erspringt. Das Da ist das Offene für die Wahrheit des Seyns, d.h. für die Lichtung des Sichverbergens, da das Seyn selbst sich verbirgt. Der Sprung wäre die "Gründung der offenen Stätte der Augenblicklichkeit für ein geschichtliches Sein des Menschen" (GA65:234). Nur die Möglichkeit dieser Gründung hat Heidegger im Sinn, die "allererst den Menschen in den Spielraum des Anfalls und des Ausbleibs der Ankunft und Flucht der Götter bringt" (GA65:234). Die Entscheidung für die Geschichte würde den Vorbeigang des "letzten Gotts" ermöglichen. Heidegger selbst springt, den anderen Anfang vorbereitend durch das Fragen der Grundfrage, der Frage nach der Wesung des Seyns. Heideggers Fragen und Sprache lösen heute vielfach Befremden aus. Aber es gibt kein Entrinnen. Wir können nur mit Heidegger fragen, selbst dann und besonders dann, wenn wir gegen ihn zu denken versuchen. Die Gegner müssen Mitdenker sein, sonst denken sie an Heideggers Frage und vor allem an der Erfahrung, die sein Denken in Bewegung gesetzt hat, vorbei. Das Ereignis wäre die Entscheidung gegen die Vorherrschaft der Metaphysik, in der das Seyn nur als das Sein des Seienden erfahren wurde. Das Seyn selbst ist nach einem kurzen Aufleuchten im ersten Anfang untergegangen (GA65:236) und hat den Weg in eine beständige denkerische Sprache nicht gefunden. Die Verfestigung des Denkens findet erst bei Platon und Aristoteles statt, die vom Seienden als solchem ausgehen und es nie verlassen und deshalb das Seyn nur als die Seiendheit denken können. Das Seiende ist allherrschend in der Metaphysik, es ist die arche, die bis heute noch herrscht. Die Entscheidung für das Ereignis hieße eine gewisse Abkehr vom Seienden. Vor allem hieße dies nicht nur, daß die Not der abendländischen Geschichte nicht durch die Technik abgewendet werden könnte, sondern auch daß das Abwenden der Not nicht mehr in der Technik gesucht werden würde. Die Technik verlöre sogar ihre Herrschaft als das, was alles - Menschen und Sachen - in Bewegung setzt und hält. Heidegger selbst ist keineswegs sicher, daß das Ereignis sich ereignen wird. Wenn auch prophetisch, ist er ein Prophet auf Widerruf. Alles, was er zum Ereignis und Entscheidung schreibt, wäre konjunktivisch zu setzen.
Aber nicht nur das: das Ausharren und Warten im Übergang zum anderen Anfang kann nicht erwarten, daß die Seinsverlassenheit verlassen wird. Deshalb ist Heideggers Denken maßgeblich von einem ungewissen Ahnen getragen. Das Wissen um den anderen Anfang ist keine Gewißheit, weil die Ankunft des Seyns nicht gewußt, sondern nur geahnt werden kann. Während im ersten Anfang die Grundstimmung das Er-staunen war, ist sie im anderen Anfang das Er-ahnen. (GA65:20) Dieses Er-ahnen ist nichts Minderwertiges gegenüber einem entbergenden Wissen, im Gegenteil: das Seinsdenken bewegt sich vollends in einem anderen Wesen der Wahrheit, in dem die Verborgenheit, der Entzug, die Verweigerung, das Vorenthalten wesentlich sind. Die Verborgenheit hat sogar den Vorrang gegenüber der Entbergung, was für eine metaphysische Haltung freilich unerträglich ist, da von alters her die Wahrheit immer ein Entbergungsgeschehen war, in dem sich das Seiende als ein solches enthüllt. Mehr als jeder andere Denker zuvor denkt Heidegger aus Grundstimmungen heraus, die er als geschichtliche und als nicht-psychologische bezeichnet. Heidegger hat sich selbst gefunden in der Entscheidung für das äußerste Wagnis des Übergangs in den anderen Anfang. Selbstheit gibt es für ihn nur aus der Inständigkeit im Da als die Lichtung für das Sichverbergen und die Verweigerung des Seyns. Die Eigentlichkeit, die in Sein und Zeit noch anthropologisch mißdeutet werden konnte, wird nach der Kehre ohne Umschweife als die Ereignung ins Ereignis erfahren und ausgelegt, so daß das Selbstsein nur noch als Eigentum des Ereignisses gefaßt werden kann. Dies ist freilich weit entfernt von irgendeinem psychologischen Verständnis des Selbstseins. Die Selbstheit ist nur aus dem Wagnis des Übergangs als Dagründung. Was aber heißt Dagründung? Das Da ortet sich da, wo das Menschenwesen hingehört nach der Ablösung von der metaphysischen Wesensbestimmung des Menschen als to zoion logon echon und Abwandlungen desselben. Es ist das Zwischen, wo laut Heidegger der Mensch und die Götter sich begegnen, wo sie einander im Ereignis vereignet werden. Die Kunst soll nach Heidegger eine maßgebliche Rolle bei der Dagründung spielen. Für ihn gibt es aber nur einen einzigen Künstler, nämlich einen Dichter namens Hölderlin. 3. Hölderlin und der andere AnfangIn den Beiträgen zur Philosophie erscheint Hölderlin immer wieder, zunächst am Anfang des Textes und dann ausführlicher im letzten Abschnitt Das Seyn. Hölderlin ist hier nicht thematisch, sondern wird eher beiläufig-hinweisend als entscheidender Bezugspunkt des Heideggerschen Denkens genannt. Heidegger hatte ein paar Jahre zuvor (1934/35) eine ausführliche Vorlesung über Hölderlin gehalten, die als der Hintergrund zu den Hinweisen in den Beiträgen verstanden werden muß.Die ersten Bemerkungen in den Beiträgen zu Hölderlin betreffen das Verhältnis des Denkens zum Dichten, als hätte der Dichter es leichter als der Denker. Heidegger denkt dem nach, was Hölderlin zuvor gedichtet hat.
Keiner sei heute so vermessen und nehme es als bloßen Zufall, daß diese drei, die je in ihrer Weise zuletzt die Entwurzelung am tiefsten durchlitten haben, der die abendländische Geschichte zugetrieben wird, und die zugleich ihre Götter am innigsten erahnt haben, frühzeitig aus der Helle ihres Tages hinweg mußten. Was bereitet sich vor? Was liegt in dem, daß der Früheste dieser drei, Hölderlin, zugleich der am weitesten Voraus-dichtende wurde in dem Zeitalter, da das Denken noch einmal die ganze bisherige Geschichte absolut zu wissen trachtete? (GA65:204)
Wer den Nationalsozialismus bejahte, bejahte - ob er während des Kriegs schon davon wußte oder nicht (und es war unmöglich, schon vor dem Ausbruch des Kriegs, nichts zu wissen) - auch Auschwitz, denn die Rassentheorie und der Antisemitismus gehören ins Wesen desselben und standen von Anfang im Parteiprogramm. Wie wollte da Heidegger eine Grenze ziehen? Es genügt nicht, nur die deutsche Universität aus dem Ganzen retten und umformen gewollt zu haben, sie "aus ihrem Wesensgrunde [...] erneuern"(9) zu wollen, wo diese deutsche Universität schon 1933 anfing, ihre jüdischen Dozenten aus sich zu vertreiben. Wie wollte Heidegger die mörderischen Elemente aus dem Programm entfernen, um von seinem moralischen Ausweichen ganz zu schweigen?(10) Ist es nicht eigentlich der deutsche Geist, der sich im Rauch der Schornsteine von Auschwitz aufgelöst hat? Ist der Rassenmord an den Juden zugleich der Selbstmord des Deutschen? Ahnt Heidegger dies, wenn er am Schluß seiner Selbstrechtfertigungsschrift an die Deutschen schreibt, "nachdem die Katastrophe über sie hereingebrochen ist"?(11) Wenn das Deutsche sich selbst geschichtlich vernichtet und verwüstet, hat es noch einen Sinn, von einem anderen abendländischen Anfang zu reden? Hat sich das Abendländische in der versuchten Ausrottung seines semitischen Anderen selbst verzehrt? Also: weit davon entfernt, unzerstörbar zu sein, hätte das Anfängliche sich selbst zerstört, so daß der Planet in der Entscheidung für die Geschichtslosigkeit nur noch fortdauert im Zwielicht eines amerikanischen Gigantismus? Heideggers heroische Worte sind immer verdächtig, weil sie immer nach Gewalt riechen. Der andere Anfang, das "Stehen im Unzerstörbaren" (GA 53:68) verlangt Opfer, da das Unzerstörbare und die Verwüstung zusammengehören, "wie das Tal zum Berg" (ibid.). Die Deutschen müssen erst durch die Verwüstung gehen, um beim anderen Anfang anzukommen:
4. Heideggers Hölderlin WS 1934/35Zwei Jahre vor der Niederschrift der Beiträge und nach seinem Rücktritt als Rektor hält Heidegger seine erste Hölderlin-Vorlesung an der Universität Freiburg, in der es deutlich wird, was Heideggers Denken diesem deutschen Dichter zumutet, nämlich die Gründung "jener Geschichte, die anhebt mit dem Kampf um die Entscheidung über Ankunft oder Flucht des Gottes".(12) Ist Hölderlin also zu verstehen als der Gründer einer neuen Religion, als dichtender Prophet? Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe deutet Heideggers Gebrauch von Hölderlin als den Versuch, "den Schritt über das strenge Fragen oder über die bloße Ankündigung eines 'anderen Denkens' hinaus zu tun, und die ersten Zeilen dieses 'anderen Denkens' zu zeichnen."(13) Nach Lacoue-Labarthe "versagt Heidegger insofern, als er das tut, wovor er Jünger ausdrücklich warnt: 'die Linie überschreitet'".(ibid. p.31) Dieses Überschreiten sei die Stiftung einer "neuen Mythologie":
Eine Alternative zu dieser Lacoue-Labarthe'schen Strategie stellt das Hinterfragen des Heideggerschen Kunstverständnisses dar, eine Strategie, die im vorliegenden Text erprobt wird. Für Heidegger hat die Kunst nur eine geschichtliche Bedeutung. Daraus erklärt sich aber auch Heideggers "politische Haltung", denn für ihn stiftet die Kunst als Dichtung die Polis. Die Hölderlin-Vorlesung 1934/35 macht den Dichter zum deutschen Homer. Von einer "schwachen messianischen Kraft" (Benjamin) in dem, was Heidegger von Hölderlin will, kann nicht im entferntesten die Rede sein.
Es ist leicht festzustellen, wer Hölderlin für Heidegger ist: "Dichter der Deutschen" (GA39:214) entsprechend Homer als "'Dichter aller Dichter'" und Stifter des geschichtlichen Daseins des griechischen Volkes. Heidegger übernimmt frag-los ein Modell der geschichtlichen Gründung von den Griechen, das drei Schritte der geschichtlichen Zeit vorsieht:
Wie aber soll die dichterische, weiterwinkende Sprache eine solche geschichtliche Möglichkeit öffnen? Hier ist Heidegger sehr deutlich: der Dichter weckt eine Grundstimmung im Volk, die immer schon Öffnung von Welt ist. Die Zeitigung der "ursprünglichen Zeit" (GA39:109) ist "das Grundgeschehnis der Stimmung". (ibid.) Die besondere Grundstimmung, die zu wecken es Hölderlins dichterische Aufgabe gewesen ist, ist die der "heilig trauernden, bereiten Bedrängnis":
Und was soll diese dichterische Sprache sagen 1934/35, wenn sie eine geschichtliche Welt stiftet? Dies wird vor allem im zweiten Teil der Vorlesung, der von der Hymne Der Rhein handelt, erläutert. Hölderlin hat den "Halbgott", den Rhein gedichtet, der kraftvoll das Vaterland stiften sollte, denn der Strom ist "anfänglich überströmender Wille" (GA39:265), der Wille des Halbgotts ist "Überwille" (GA39:208). Bei der Stiftung geht alles vom Willen aus und auf den Willen des Volkes zu, denn "ein geschichtliches Volk ist als Volk nur Gemeinschaft, wenn diese es weiß, und das heißt will, daß Gemeinschaft als geschichtliche nur sein kann, wenn jene Anderen als die Anderen ihr Anderssein wagen und austragen." (GA39:284) Der Dichter als der Andere stellt seine Sprache ins Volk, damit es wissen kann, was es will. Der Überwille des das Vaterland wollenden Stroms entspringt aus der Mutter Erde als "der versinken lassenden Verschlossenheit des Schoßes" (GA39:242) wie auch aus dem "Lichtstrahl" (ibid.) des göttlichen Blitzes nach griechischer Manier. Die "Überfülle eines großen Wollens" (GA39:243) muß "der Gestaltwerdung entgegengedrängt" (ibid.) werden, was in den Vorträgen über den Ursprung des Kunstwerkes als das "Ins-Werk-setzen der Wahrheit", die ursprüngliche Energie, genannt werden sollte. Der Wille als Überwille macht Geschichte als Geschichte des deutschen Volkes. Dieser überströmende Wille ist es, der Heidegger in die Richtung des Nationalsozialismus gedrängt hat und der ihn bis zum Kriegsende gefesselt hält. 5. Zusammenfassendes ZwischenergebnisNach dem dreistufigen Modell des Dichter-Denker-Staatsgründers soll die "griechisch-deutsche Sendung" (GA39:151) verwirklicht werden. Hölderlin tritt hier auf als "Künder und Rufer für die, die es angeht, die selbst in eine Berufung als Bauleute am Bau der Welt gestellt sind." (GA39:221) Auch nach dem Krieg wird der Zusammenhang zwischen Bauen und Dichten aufrechterhalten - vgl. etwa '...dichterisch wohnet der Mensch...' in Vorträge und Aufsätze (1954). Die Denker haben dabei die Rolle, die "Dichtung zur Härte und Bestimmtheit des denkerisch-fragenden Wissens" (GA39:221) zu gestalten. Daß dies nicht ohne Kampf und Streit geschehen kann, versteht sich, weil die Dichtung "als Stiften nichts anderes ist als der Waffenklang der Natur selbst, das Seyn, das im Wort sich zu sich selbst bringt." (GA39:257) So übersetzt Heidegger den Gedanken des Heraklitischen Polemos-Fragments ins Deutsche. Die Vorherrschaft des Willens als Überwille ist das Scharnier, das Heideggers Denken, das von einem großen geschichtlichen Auftrag des deutschen Volkes träumt, mit dem Nationalsozialismus innigst verbindet. Daß nach dem Desaster des Zusammenbruchs des deutschen Eroberungsversuches und vor allem nach der Enthüllung des Grauens in den Todeslagern dieser Traum endgültig ausgeträumt worden ist, ist seit langem ersichtlich.Jedes Streben nach Größe und Vereinheitlichung, vor allem nach nationaler Größe ist heute mehr als verdächtig. Jedes starke Denken, das einen neuen Anfang, eine tabula rasa verspricht, riecht nach Totalitarismus und Gewalt und Mord. Stärke und Größe sind mehr als fragwürdige Kategorien geworden. Heideggers Verarbeitung des nationalsozialistischen Desasters bestand wesentlich in einer Abkehr vom Willen, der sein Denken nach Kriegsende charakterisiert und prägt, auch wenn der Wille zu einer nationalen geschichtlichen Größe, die im deutschen Boden beheimatet ist, niemals vollständig erlischt. Die Rede von einer Rettung durch einen Gott, die nur vor dem Hintergrund der Hölderlin-Vorlesung 1934/35 sowie der Beiträge verständlich ist, bleibt selbst im späten Speigel-Gespräch von 1966 erhalten. Das Denken wartet noch auf eine große Zukunft, die es vorbereitet. Die Ankunft des anderen, durch das Deutsche gestifteten Anfangs wird nur in weite, unbestimmte Ferne hinausgeschoben. Wenn sich Heidegger in den Beiträgen einzig auf Hölderlin stützt und seine nationalistische Deutung der Kunst unter der Leitung der Dichtung heute äußerst fragwürdig erscheinen muß, dann wird um Heideggers Denken wieder alles offen. Wenn Heidegger im Spiegel-Interview behauptet, daß er das "Wegweisende der modernen Kunst nicht sehe", hat das wesentlich mit seinem von Hölderlin her geprägtem Verständnis der Kunst zu tun. Wenn das "Nationelle" von Heideggers Rede nach dem Krieg verschwindet, heißt es nicht, daß nun alles vom Deutschen aufs Planetarische ausgedehnt und das spezifisch Deutsche vergessen werden könnte. Vielmehr muß Heideggers Denken über die Kunst, die Dichtung, die Sprache, den anderen Anfang und vor allem den Willen infrage gestellt werden. Auffallend ist ja bei Heideggers Nachkriegsschriften der Wegfall des starken Willens, der seine Haltung während der NS-Zeit charakterisiert. Den Übergangstext zu dieser veränderten Haltung stellt Zur Erörterung der Gelassenheit aus den Jahren 1944/45 dar, in dem sich das Denken vom Willen ab- und dem Warten zukehrt. Hölderlinsche Elemente bleiben jedoch im Entwurf des Gevierts erhalten. Bei Gelegenheit wird es sich lohnen, den Gelassenheits-Text zu untersuchen, vor allem im Hinblick auf Heideggers Auseinandersetzung mit der sich abzeichnenden deutschen Niederlage. Das Desaster des Nationalsozialismus hat wohl Heideggers Willen gebrochen, nicht in einem psychologischen, sondern in einem wesentlichen, philosophischen Sinn. Nun jedoch sollte der Sprung über den Atlantik zum New York der fünfziger Jahre gewagt werden, um zu erkunden, was die moderne Kunst damals gemacht hat. Heidegger hat freilich das "Wegweisende" dieser neuen Kunst nicht gesehen, was angesichts der mittlerweile gewonnenen Kenntnisse über die Heideggersche Hölderlin-Auslegung nicht überraschen kann. Die führende Kunstform der New Yorker Kunstszene der fünfziger Jahre war nicht die Dichtung, sondern zunächst die Malerei, die dann auf die Musik grundlegend kräftige Auswirkungen ausstrahlte, vermittelt vor allem durch die Komponisten John Cage, Morton Feldman und Christian Wolff. 6. The New York FiftiesChange of continent, change of perspective, change of language, change of world. The contrast between the Black Forest of south-western Germany and New York City could hardly be greater. With his deep-seated rejection and disdain of Americanism, the world of art and music in the NYC of the fifties was not open to Heidegger. In America there are no thinkers in the sense that there have been Denker in Germany, but after the war that drove so many European intellectuals and artists to the United States, there was a burgeoning art and music scene with its centre in New York. Something happened in New York after the war, as if Europe had given up its ghost, or passed on its spirit, its Geist, to the other continent. The German spirit had committed suicide, or had at least gone into metempsychosis.Cage and Feldman were deeply influenced by the European imports, but more directly by the transformation that art went through at the hands of Jackson Pollock and the other Abstract Expressionists, a transformation in which American art stepped out of the shadow of European painting once and for all and came into its own with a vengeance. Painting was at this time the avant garde for music, and music learnt the lesson that it now had to do without language, without meaning, without a literary underpinning. Music ceased telling stories as it went along, thus breaking also with Schoenberg, who had brought the German musical tradition with him to the United States. Schoenberg's twelve tone system, according to his intentions, allowed a continuation of the great German tradition, maintaining its rootedness in meaning and a text. Instead of this reliance on an anchorage in language and a theory, Cage and Feldman (together with Earle Brown and Christian Wolff) broke with the theoretical systems that held dominion over the tones and took the very first steps to allow sounds as sounds to happen. Sounds as sounds means that they are no longer ordered in a harmonic, atonal, twelve tone or any other system nor are they transporters of meaning articulated elsewhere in a poetical text but rather they are allowed to happen just as they are, each sound for itself, or even each noise for itself. It is the diaspora of sounds as an act of liberation, the exodus of sounds from the bondage of harmonic and other systems. They find their way into dissemination. An explosion, a catastrophe takes place in the fifties, a catastrophe that ejects music into a hitherto unknown freedom with unfathomable possibilities. This act of liberation is on one level tied to a program and given an historical mission with Cage (and Wolff too) trying to build bridges between music and social change. Feldman, by contrast, does not, but is content with being purely a composer. What does this tell us about Heidegger? There is a lot to say, some of it showing up the gulf that exists between Heidegger's conception of art on the one hand and Cage's (and Feldman's) on the other, but some of it showing a deep affinity, signalled by the terms letting-be and the apophantic as. There is also some indication that Cage's art has opened up another historical world, thus echoing lines from Heidegger's lectures on the Origin of the Work of Art, but in a way that would have been unrecognizable to the latter. Heidegger and Cage share also a naive view of politics resulting from short-circuited translations of their respective thinking and art onto the level of politics. (This will be elaborated on later, albeit only with respect to Cage.) The phrases 'sounds as sounds' and 'noise as noise' already have a Heideggerian ring about them. Like no other, Heidegger showed how metaphysics hangs on a small conjunctive word, as. He characterizes the openness of Dasein for the world as being able to understand beings as beings, to on heh on. The apophantic as is the ontological difference, the between in which world happens for Dasein. For Heidegger, this as is the origin of language. Being lays claim on Dasein. Exposed or thrown into the openness of the apophantic as, Dasein is compelled to respond. This response is language, even if Dasein says nothing. Merely being open to sounds as sounds is already being within language in Heideggerian terms. That would mean that hearing is the originary experience of language. Dasein is able to hear entities as such and is thus in the world. The originary language of sound does not, however, have to carry a message, it does not have to mean anything. This is where Heidegger and Cage part ways, because Heidegger ties sound back to language in the sense of words and more especially to words in the sense of his sketch of the foursome of world. Otherwise, Heidegger would not have been able to make poetry into the hegemonic artform that opens up and founds a world. This tying back to language takes place in another context even as early as Being and Time, when Heidegger insists that the sound heard is always already the sound of something, say, the sound of the motor bike passing by, the wind in the trees, the door slamming, etc. But then sounds would always mean something. The sound of the oboe may be experienced as the sound of the oboe, but that's the end of the matter: this sound does not have to mean anything by, for example, evoking a specific emotion or having a part to play in a musical development. Heidegger's intention was, rightly, to prevent the physicalistic reduction of sound to composite waves of certain frequencies that vibrate in air, but the implications are more far-reaching. The sound of music for Heidegger can only be music in a world that has already been opened up and established by poetic language. Cage et al do without this crutch. For them, sounds come and go without having to refer to anything but themselves. They do not need to be rooted or located in a text or in an overarching musical system. Thus it is not fortuitous that Cage and Feldman were inspired by the abstract expressionist painters who themselves had accomplished a reduction of painting by emptying it of meaning. The colour on the canvas does not have to represent anything anymore. It is not a symbol, nor does it represent an object mimetically, nor is there any other reference to an exterior meaning. A kind of clearing of the board takes place with the New York painters of the fifties. Now they start again from scratch with the basics: paint on canvas. Colour as colour comes to be seen. This nihilistic, reductionist movement is neither resignative nor absurdist. It is rather throwing metaphysical ballast overboard to allow colour as colour to emerge. The nakedness of the colour is overwhelming and highly reserved at one and the same time. It shocks and shows discretion with one and the same gesture. There is nothing to see, but the mood is overpowering. Consider, for example, Rothko's hovering, shimmering patches of colour which are transcendental only in showing colour as colour. Interpreting these patches of transcendental colour as sublime and divine only does violence to them. They are what they are. The apophantic as is the originary transcendence that calls us into the there; it is not a beyond. The same thing happens with Cage's and Feldman's and Wolff's music. There is nothing to hear but the sounds themselves. There is no development, no predictability, no beginning, no end. There is no introduction and no finale. Nothing is expressed. The pieces are not there to provide a virtuoso performer with an opportunity to shine. "Value judgments are not in the nature of this work as regards either composition, performance, or listening."(14) Cage and Feldman have no intention of leading the American people to their historical mission, even though Cage, as we shall see below in more detail, wants to improve the world. They have nothing to say, except perhaps: Happy New Ears. Their music speaks of nothing. But this nothing is not nothing, it is rich. There are strong overtones of agreement between Heidegger and Cage/Feldman that are located in the theme of letting be (Sein-lassen, Gelassenheit). Feldman talks about not "meddling with the material", not "pushing the sounds around", to which his German interlocutor, Stockhausen, replies "Not even a little bit?"(15) It is no wonder that Cage became more famous than Feldman, for he wrote and published more texts, and these are marked by a lucidity that allows Cage's artistic intentions to be clearly understood. Feldman, on the other hand, was more sparing in his writings and has a more cryptic style, often spiced with anecdotes like some Zen teacher dropping koans. For a philosophical evaluation of the so-called New York school, it is Cage who offers more material to chew on. Texts on how specific pieces were composed do not hold the main interest for a philosophical survey, which requires a wider view. In the clarity of his conception and the radicality of his leap into another kind of music, Cage is also the more pioneering figure. He outlines a new kind of art as a whole, whereas Feldman remains pretty much a composer. The exchange between Abraham Skulsky and Cage in the periodical Musical America at the beginning of the fifties is an instructive example. Cage rejects the terms of Skulsky's view of the composer's task as "achieving ideals" or presenting a "new aesthetics". Against this, Cage sets the assertion: "Art is a way of life. It is for all the world like taking a bus, picking flowers, making love, sweeping the floor, getting bitten by a monkey, reading a book, etc., ad infinitum".(16) The Freiburg music historian, Hans-Heinrich Eggebrecht picked out just this point as pivotal for having it out with Cage as a thinker and creative artist. Eggebrecht questions the edict that there is no difference between art and life in a radio program that was broadcast on German radio on 7 August 1994. To say that "art is a way of life" is one way of leaving the traditional realm of aesthetics, which is concerned with the enjoyment and appreciation of sensory perception. As we shall see below, Cage's art ultimately dissolves art by questioning the foundations of techne. The dictum that art is a way of life brings Cage into contact once again with Heidegger, who, with other motives in mind, strove to break the vice-like hold of philosophical aesthetics in his lectures on The Origin of the Work of Art in the mid-thirties. The two alternatives to traditional aesthetics show surprising similarities. Heidegger leaves the schema of form and material or form and content for thinking about art works and puts in its place the thought that a work of art opens up an historical world in a struggle with the earth, that for its part leans towards concealedness and inertia. What for Cage is a way of everyday life is for Heidegger an historical world. No matter how these two terms are further interpreted, both take leave of the work of art as an aesthetic experience, be it that aesthetic means 'concerned with beauty', or be it that it is taken in the original Greek sense of 'concerned with sensory perception'. Beauty is inevitably a matter of taste and judgements about what is pleasant, but now taste is got rid of as an arbiter of the success or failure of a musical composition. "Normally the choice of sounds is determined by what is pleasing and attractive to the ear: delight in the giving or receiving of pain being an indication of sickness."(17) Both Heidegger and Cage insist in different ways that the work of art be useful, Cage by tying the art work back to life in learning to change oneself in accepting things as they happen contingently, and Heidegger by putting the work to work in prising open another historical world, conceived as another uncovering of the being of beings, i.e. an alternative casting of being. Cage takes in the world of sounds and noises and declares them, without distinction, to be music. No longer should the system of harmony in its various forms and extensions, culminating in Schoenberg and then the serial composers, be the form that reigns over and organizes the material of uniquely defined, pitched tones. Cage thus proceeds in a direction diametrically opposed to that of the serial composers Boulez and Stockhausen, who developed a system for controlling not just pitch but rhythm, dynamics, stresses and duration as well by means of mathematical permutations (see below). Here there is no parallel to Heidegger's thinking about the art work in the mid-thirties, but there is nevertheless an affinity to the later Heidegger, who takes leave of the will as the essence of thinking towards the end of the Second World War in his text Gelassenheit (Letting-be). Cage, convinced that life is essentially non-intentional, also strives to open up works of musical art to non-intentionality. This takes place in two phases, the first, in which he uses chance operations to compose a piece, paradigmatically represented by his Music of Changes (1951), and the second, in which the musical work itself becomes indeterminate, by allowing the performers to make choices and, more radically, by subjecting the performance of the work itself to the vagaries of chance, so that the work never sounds the same twice. The paradigmatic piece here would be Imaginary Landscape, a composition for twelve radios, in which what is playing on the radio at various frequencies at the time of the performance is allowed to become part of a piece of music heard by an audience. Many of Cage's later pieces are set free for superimposition with other works, thus introducing indeterminacy in the performance of them. The work of art, especially in Imaginary Landscape, becomes a net for catching contingent aural events. Music becomes coincidence. In such a composition, all that is put together is the radios, the frequencies and the volumes in a temporal frame together with some instructions for using them. There is no melody, rhythm or harmony, but there is something to listen to. Music is thus recast as listening to what happens in a time-space frame. This recasting goes far beyond the redefinition of an artform or the proposal of a new aesthetics. In line with Cage's dictum recasting art as a form of life, the redefinition of music implies a redefinition of life, i.e. ultimately a recasting of who we are in everyday life. Human being becomes an openness to and for what can be heard; its essence lies in listening rather that willing something. An openness for the world precedes any acting in it. This is a long way from the traditional metaphysical zoion logon echon and the zoion politikon, both of which are premised upon a being with an ability, namely, the natural light of reason, employing it to manipulate things in accordance with the will. Both Heidegger and Cage, in very different language, insist on the openness of human being for the world as the fundamental event of being here, in contrast to the metaphysical castings of human being as an animal with certain qualities and abilities to act on entities in the world. Openness for the world precedes any questions of knowledge (technology) or ethics, which always already presuppose, unthought, this originary openness. 7. A contingent world, the world as contingencyThe casting of the world that Cage offers with his thinking and music and contributions to the other arts is that the world is what happens at random, at haphazard, by chance. Contingency, accidentality, randomness, haphazard, chance are words characterizing the new world we live in, the world that carries on where modernity and the modern subject left off. Said negatively, randomness is characterized by a lack of control, "having no definite aim or purpose" (OED), being free from restraint, or positively: "made, done, occurring at haphazard, by chance" (OED). Whereas "made" and "done" still refer to an acting subject, "occur" is open to the happening of events without special agency. Cage's casting of the world implies an abstaining from restraint, a relinquishing of control over things. What is left is, said in Zen terms, nothingness, or in Heideggerian terms, the truth of the openness of being as such.Cage's art and thinking can well be regarded as a response to the increasing complexity of the world. He insists on art being useful for living in today's world, which is characterized by complexity, itself in turn simply the reverse side of the manipulative power unleashed by modern technology. Complexity results from a network of independent nodes, whether they be individuals, companies or institutions, interacting in no particular pattern. There is no point in the network from which one could gain a bird's eye view, no point at which its structure or meaning would become manifest, not even for a god. No longer is it presupposed that there is some ultimate subject for whom, in its infinite wisdom, everything made some sense, as opposed to human understanding, which is finite. There is no longer any maker assumed behind it all. Instead, the events occur simply at haphazard and can be taken in as such by an attentive existence without concocting explanations. The worldwide web of telecommunications currently being spun aroung the globe, for example, is a loose-fitting knit that links only to open possibilities, not to force necessities. The relinquishment of control is one of the main threads going through Cage's development as a composer from the late thirties to the sixties. Starting in the late forties, he devises more and more ways to abscond from the scene of the art work as composer-subject and to allow things to happen. What infuriated and enraged audiences and musicians alike initially was that everything dissolved into anarchy. (Witness, for example, the premiere of his Piano Concerto on 19 September 1958 in Cologne, where the audience interjected with noises of its own.) This was in fact Cage's aim: to abolish the overarching principle, to depose the ruling prince, a corollary of which was to depose the conductor. Without the system of harmony, there was no yardstick against which to conveniently measure the tones heard. At first it all sounded chaotic, a huge joke, and John Cage was simply the clown. But Cage was quietly serious. In playing together, the musicians act and interact as separate monads, each with his or her own line and time. They play neither harmoniously nor disharmoniously because they play outside of harmony. There is simply no longer any overarching system that could be used to judge the sounds heard as an integrated whole. They remain disparate, each one for itself, although interacting and coinciding with other sounds in unpredictable and surprising ways. This becomes especially apparent in the superimposed pieces, because there is no whole to start with within which each performer would have an assigned part to play. Cage's compositions differ from some other musical works in the second half of the twentieth century which employ more and more complex mathematical systems such as the superimposition of rhythms, microtonal intervals and stochastic models. Neither in composing nor in performing does the composer relinquish control over the sounds when composing by these methods. The standards of virtuosity demanded of the performing musician(s) tend to rise in parallel to the rising complexity. Not that Cage's compositions do not place high demands on performers, even calling on virtuosity as in, say, the Freeman Etudes for solo violin. For this piece, Cage worked closely with the violinist Paul Zukowsky in finding out what was still possible to be played on this demanding instrument. It was a matter of translating celestial charts into notes and fingering playable on the violin. But the demands placed on the performer are basically of a kind other than virtuosity. They require the simplicity of devotion more than brilliance. With the corset of harmony, the traditional occidental language of the soul, having fallen away, the judgement of performers on the basis of virtuosity also starts to swim. Expressiveness, in particular, loses validity as a yardstick, since the sounds made are no longer expressions of the musician's or the composer's soul. Pathos and feeling cease to be criteria of musical judgement. Music is no longer a medium through which the soul is moved emotively. Still less does it become a soulless field of exercise for intellectual contortions, a charge more justly to be levelled at serial music. The great difference between Cagean aleatoric and indeterminacy procedures and modern composition techniques is that the latter proceed from known systems and make them complexer to an ever-increasing extent, so that there is always a fine thread of theoretical knowledge, no matter how entwined, holding the whole composition together, whereas Cage employs random procedures that ensure that one can never theoretically penetrate the final musical event that is aurally experienced. The admission of chance both in composition and performance not only overloads but actually cuts off and relinquishes any possibilities of a theoretical grasp. It lets the openness of opaqueness be. The musical work becomes in principle technically non-understandable, incomprehensible. Said positively, Cage's music lets the chaos of contingency be such. Contingency as contingency is let be; there is no attempt to transmute contingency into explicability by means of some chaos theory or other, as modern mathematics is wont to do. It is precisely this admittance of incomprehension and allowance of opacity that marks Cage off from his European counterparts, raising their ire to a not inconsiderable degree. One can almost feel the hackles rising in, say, Boulez' or Xenakis' sometimes condescending attitudes toward Cage's music. These latter composers, remaining as they do strongly committed to the European tradition of techne, can only regard Cage's iconoclasm in the halls of occidental music as anathema. Of all the Western arts, music (and architecture) have been the most mathematical, and mathematics is the purest, most eternal form of Western knowledge, the form of knowledge with the greatest degree of theoretical penetration and thus control. Even today, mathematics is regarded as the language of the secrets of the universe. Kant's insight into the interrogative nature of modern science, which demands answers from nature in a certain (mathematical) form, has still not caught up with modern scientists, who arrogantly regard themselves as the possessors of the deepest arcane knowledge about nature's mysteries. For the Greeks, mathematics, the theory of harmony and metaphysics were very close together. The order of the universe, the movement of the spheres has from time immemorial been thought of in terms of harmony and mathematical proportions, i.e. rationality in the original sense. It is not simply fortuitous that those philosophers who ushered in the modern age, Descartes and Leibniz, were also eminent mathematicians. The mathematization of time and space were great metaphysical castings of the world that opened up and paved the way for the sciences to take control of and manipulate things. Music partook of this progress and employed mathematical procedures for its own ends in organizing its material. Thus, for example, the mathematical theory of combinatorics, only developed relatively recently, is very much at home in serial music. Chance can be allowed into music in a controlled way via the theories of probability, statistical distributions and stochastic processes. Chaos theory discovers order in disorder, thus winning possibilities of control. Pure aleatorics in the way Cage used it means relinquishing control, suspending comprehension and allowing sounds to happen without asking why. Cage's aleatorics are a leap into simplicity. Some European composers have since taken up aleatoric methods but simultaneously subjected them to control for the sake of a result that pleases their ears. Thus there is the "controlled aleatorics" of Vitold Lutoslawski, but there are many others, starting with Boulez, who put the shackles of taste and theoretical stringency back onto contingency. Much of serial music sounds strained and constipated, whereas Cage's works have a looseness of letting be and thus a beauty all their own (albeit that beauty is not the point). Eric Salzman writes, for instance, in a comparison of Cage's Variations IV with Stockhausen's Hymnen:
8. Cage's artless artIf Cage's innovations in music and art can be seen in connection with a renunciation of techne, it implies the most radical change in art since the Greeks, a change that could be characterized as the renunciation of art in favour of artlessness. Artlessness must however be understood not simply in the sense of its dictionary meaning as the substantive from "artless", meaning "without artifice, guileless, unskilful, crude" (OED) and thus "without cunning or deceit", but as "without art" in the sense of without preconceiving foreknowledge. Can being without foreknowledge imply that one is unskilful or crude? Does artless mean being natural? Can being 'with art' mean that one is cunning and deceitful? With respect to the former at least, Cage, Feldman and others have indeed been accused by European composers of being "amateurs", i.e. below the level of fully fledged, professional composers with the necessary knowledge and expertise.
9. Substitute Cage for HölderlinThere is a way of taking a view of Cage's dictums on art as a way of life from Heidegger's lectures on The Origin of the Work of Art, substituting now John Cage for Friedrich Hölderlin as the reference artist. If the substitution works, it will reorient thinking about Heidegger, while at the same time planting Cage's philosophical insights in deeper soil. Heidegger posits the work of art as opening an historical world by putting truth to work/into the work. Truth here is the revealedness of an historical world. Truth is put to work by being put into the work, which in turn has the task of opening up an historical world based on another truth, that is, an historically specific revealedness of being and thus of entities as such. This opening up is a struggle in which a world is wrested from the earth. It would seem that Cage as an artist, more specifically, as a composer, has opened a world with his works and thus set truth to work and into the work. In this other world a decision is made about what entities will be. Cage is unequivocal on this point; entities are for him centres "moving out in all directions without impasse"(20). This reminds one of Leibniz's monads as force centres, but in contrast to Leibniz's monads, Cage's centres are not dependent in any way on an omniscient and omnipotent God for their existence or their properties. Rather, each centre is a centre in and for itself, and the multitude of centres interact and interpenetrate without mutually hindering each other. Because of their an-archic independence, Cage's entities are essentially contingent and only contingently necessary, i.e. ordered.Cage's music puts this truth of being to work by treating each aural event, each tone, sound and noise as its own centre that interpenetrates non-impedingly other aural centres without becoming subject to any overarching principle, be it compositional or otherwise. On this basis, existing musical works from the tradition of Western music can also be cut up and mixed without doing any violence to them; they are equally valid and do not have priority over the noises one hears in the streets. Cage's "Mixes" result from this procedure. There is no longer any principle, any prince or king, holding sway over the centres and pressing them into one mould or the other. It is music detached from the willed subject with a certain definite intention. Each centre happens on its own accord without being predictable on the basis of an overarching knowledge nor having a function to fulfil in a whole and thus can happen accidentally and coincidentally and aimlessly. There does not have to be any overall plan. "The sounds enter the time-space centered within themselves, unimpeded by service to any abstraction, their 360 degrees of circumference free for an infinite play of interpenetration." (21)In the course of the fifties, Cage progressed to more and more radical degrees of indeterminacy in his compositions, so allowing contingency to come into its own. Getting nowhere means achieving greater degrees of aimlessness and coincidentality and randomness. The time brackets he employs right up to his last works ensure that each musician can act, within the brackets, from his or her own centre. The brackets are given contingently by the world, e.g. by tosses of the coin. Cage's music puts truth to work by revealing another openness of beings as such and thus casting the totality of entities as such in a different way, namely, anarchically. This is entirely at variance with Heidegger's conviction that it must be a work of language, more specifically, poetry, that inaugurates and delineates the casting of another world. This is no accident but has fundamentally to do with the character of the world Cage's music inaugurates. This world is silence. The basic event of silence is noise that has no meaning and comes before language. Can this be compared with Heidegger's late formulation of the essence of language as "das Geläut der Stille", "the ringing of silence"? Yes, but only to notice the vast difference, for Heidegger's formulation is embedded within his thinking of the foursome of a world in which gods and mortals, earth and heaven cross over in interplay. "Stillness stills by bearing out world and things into their essencing." (22) Cage's ringing of silence, by contrast, is the simple experience of opening your ears to what's happening. Although Cage wrote very lucid texts about his music and placed it in a broader philosophical context, it must be said that his music does not rely on the written thoughts as an underpinning, but rather the other way round: it is the openness that the music calls for that demands an adequate language and thinking to describe this historical event. Cage is first and foremost an artist, a composer, not a thinker. His texts reflect on what he does as an artist and not, say, on the apophantic as or the ontological difference, i.e. thoughts won in the course of grappling with the metaphysical tradition of philosophy. Cage's world of silence is not rooted in a meaning that is already structured as the foursome of world. In particular, it is not the world of a people that finds itself historically in its own poetry-based provincial home, carved out by the mighty Rhine, but a cosmopolitan world for a planetary population open to what happens contingently within and without the network that interlinks them. Perhaps, after the Second World War, it is only possible to cast a cosmopolitical world, the world as one place to live for all those living. As Cage puts it, quoting James Joyce: "Here comes everyone." (23) More than ever, despite the control exercised by technology and science, the earth's population is exposed to the openness of possibility rather than the certainty of a known order. The bonds of an imposed order have loosened in every respect. It would seem that what was left of the German spirit fled Nazi Germany in a suitcase, labelled with the incognito 'twelve tone system', of an Austrian Jew, Arnold Schoenberg. In California, this suitcase was handed over to an American, John Cage, who transformed its contents in ways unimaginable for the German émigré. The German spirit mutated, against Schoenberg's intentions, which were to provide a continuation of the great German tradition, into something akin to Zen. The points of similarity between Zen teachings and Heidegger's thinking, especially after the War, indicate in some way a confluence of East and West in an incipient planetary thinking. Cage's seminal piece, 4'33" has been rightly adjudged to be fundamental to the radical change Cage inaugurated in music. 4'33" = 273", the absolute zero of stillness.
Jill Johnston, in 1962 the dance critic of the New York Village Voice, quotes in her insightful review of Cage's first book, Silence, a thoughtful remark by the composer Robert Ashley: "...the ultimate result would be a music that wouldn't necessarily involve anything but the presence of people. That is, it seems to me that the most radical redefinition of music that I could think of would be one that defines 'music' without reference to sound." (25) This is probably on the right track, although we have still to ask what the presence of people means and whether it is necessary for music. Does silence need people to be silence? The tendency is towards an understanding of music and of art as a whole that opens it up to the originary phenomenon of being there. Music is the paradigmatic artform for this radical widening because it comes back to the paradigms of open behaviour in attentiveness and listening. Silence is the event beyond intention and interest, the event of being beyond or before relating to any specific entity. Sound is primary here rather than sight, the supremely metaphysical sense (26), because listening is the sense of human being's receptivity par excellence. This listening must not be understood merely as the auditory sense, but as the openness of existing in the difference of world that lets entities be themselves. Inquisitiveness is a basic trait of this open human being. Intentionality in the strict philosophical sense derived from Husserl, is the subject's act of directing the will towards entities. The will is at the base of the metaphysical understanding of action that is with us from the very start of the Western tradition. Aristotle defines action as striving plus intention (orexis + proairesis). This definition proceeds from an understanding of human being as being the subject of action (hypokeinenon tou dramou). Similarly, thinking is also intention as a directedness of mind towards specific entities. The baseline of metaphysics is acting on the basis of knowledge or insight. It is not fortuitous that there is sight in insight, because, as Aristotle notes right at the beginning of his Metaphysics, sight is the sense that most of all provides knowledge, i.e. it is the sense of directedness towards entities par excellence. It is the archetypal prying sense. In contrast to this, listening is receptivity and not knowledge of entities. It takes things in as they are without necessarily understanding them or prying into them or being able to explain them. As a metaphysical and not simply sensual sense, hearing stands for openness of and to the world, the originary transcendence that lands human being in a mood out there in the there of the world, without necessarily being attentive to specific entities. Only on the basis of this originary openness for being can the being of beings be perceived. The event of being is the originary unmade missive donative, sent before any subject can act. As donative it is simultaneously the destiny of being human. 10. Step backWith his silent piece, 4'33", Cage unknowingly performs the step back about which Heidegger speaks, but in a way that Heidegger did not envisage, transfixed as he was on Hölderlin. The step back alters everything, not least of all the understanding of art. The art work is no longer primarily a work in the sense of that which has been brought forth. The art work is no longer thought poietically. Art is not originarily poiesis. This represents a break with the metaphysical tradition whose implications can scarcely be overestimated. The step back dissolves the boundary between art and existence because art becomes artlessness. Both become openness for the event of being, the originary happening. One immediate corollary of this is that the artist cannot have an intention he or she wants to get across, nor can it be a matter of expressing an emotion or of moving an audience emotively. The art work is then a happening experienced variously and disparately by an audience. The audience, as the word says etymologically, is originarily aural, not visual. The viewer is rather the suitable title for the one experiencing a metaphysical art work. The art work happens at various independent points and is experienced at various independent points by the audience. Events overlap and interlace and interact without impeding each other. There is no unified meaning to be culled from a performance. In particular, it does not tell a story. It is consistent for Cage, the first performance or happening artist, to have moved freely beyond the bounds of music to painting, film, theatre and dance because the postmetaphysical art work is not primarily what has been brought forth, and thus not definable in terms of a medium, but is rather the setting up of an open timeframe for an event or events. This setting up is not a presentation of something already imagined. Cage even describes the new composer as an entrepreneur:
Cage breaks radically with the European tradition of music and asks why it is we bother about tradition. Instead of being concerned about "history", Cage's entire thinking is oriented towards the future, not just in the sense that it is avant garde rather than conservative and thus furthers what is new, but in the more fundamental sense that his music is concerned with opening up the dimension of future in time-space. He was never concerned with l'art pour l'art, with taste, pleasantness or aesthetics, but with doing "what must be done". (28) In the article quoted, which was first published in 1959, he elaborates on a statement by Christian Wolff in an article published in 1958 characterizing the new music as "Sound come into its own." Cage comes up with profound insights into this. Being concerned with experimental music, he asks "What is the nature of experimental action?" (ibid. p.69) and replies "It is simply an action the outcome of which is not foreseen." (ibid.) The word "foreseen" hits the nail on the head. "Foresight" is sight to the fore, sight ahead, i.e. sight into the future. Sight into the future means one can see what is coming. The ecstasy of future in the time-space is transparent to foresight. "Sound come into its own" means that this transparency becomes opaque. Instead of sight into the future, attentiveness for what comes unforeseen out of the space of future is called for. Hearing then has no foresight, no forehearing, but is called on to be open for what sound comes. Inquisitiveness gains a pre-eminent status. Cage relates this most radically to indeterminacy in performing music. The composer works directly with procedures for producing sounds in a performance, "for nothing one does [as a composer] gives rise to anything that is preconceived," (ibid.) i.e. there is no pre-existing work that is performed but instead instructions for producing indeterminately unforeseen sounds. Another precise and essential word occurs here: "preconception", the essential characteristic of techne, which is foresight in the form of foreknowledge. Techne, as Aristotle first thinks it, is a dynamis, a power or potential. In his metaphysics, Aristotle thinks the being of dynamis as being a point of departure having dominion over a change in something else, or in the same thing insofar as it is something else. (E.g. when the doctor treats herself, she does not treat herself as a doctor, but as a patient, i.e. as if she were someone else.) As knowledge, and more specifically, as foreknowledge, techne is a "point of departure having dominion over a change in something else". The carpenter who knows his or her art knows in advance how to make a change in the wooden material so that, say, a bed results. Carpentry as an art or techne is in the first place foreknowledge or know-how, a potential as knowing how, not the actual making of the bed itself, which is actualization of the potential of know-how. The foreknowledge is the preconception on which the carpenter acts. He or she preconceives the bed that is to be made. On this basic level, this is no different from the composer preconceiving the piece to be written "to express sentiments or ideas of order". (ibid.) Techne is fundamentally foreknowledge as point of departure for a change in something else and is thus control over what happens in the future. As insight into and thus control over the future in this broad sense, techne is the quintessence of controlling power. In music, the performance of the work has to measure up to what was preconceived. For new music, being indeterminate, there is no preconceived yardstick; there is always an element of surprise at the unexpected, for the composer has left the clearing open to the unforeseen. When the play of chance is allowed in(to) composition, one renounces foresight and foreknowledge. Composition ceases to be techne, the control over change in beings on the basis of knowledge or preconception, and comes to be an experiment for what could happen in an open time-space. Experience comes into its own in experimental music. What is primary here is the time-space and its openness to possible experiences. The future of this time-space is no longer transparent but opaque. In its opaqueness it is open nevertheless, keeping possibility open. Openness here means first of all the cleared opening of time-space and second, receptivity on the part of listeners for what sounds arrive from the future into the present. Openness does not mean being able to see or intuit what comes. The elements involved in the performance of this new music are mostly uncontrolled, the composer only laying down certain parameters to stake out the time-space-frame. And this is what is needed historically:
It is not immediately clear how or whether this translates onto the level of politics and social change, especially since politics is a matter of managing our affairs, i.e. of dealing with entities on the basis of interests. It cannot be a matter of political struggle, which would presuppose a willed, striving subject who gets involved in the struggle of interests. It is more than questionable whether Cage's political anarchism fits his more fundamental anarchism of surrendering the arche of techne, arche being understood as being a starting point having dominion over a change, archemetaboles. Any political stance, in any case, has to be viewed as something deriviative in the light of the more radical departure from the arche of techne and thus any of the conventional forms of political anarchism are not adequate to this more fundamental casting of human being, based as they are on ideas about being free from the state, i.e. they are essentially negative movements against the state as a universal social subject with the role of governing society and keeping it together within certain forms of right. The individual with inalienable human rights underlies these 'anti' conceptions of politics. An-archism is interpreted as anti the state and is thus dependent on the state. Anarchism in the sense of letting sounds be sounds and things be what they are, by contrast, is not directed against an arche but is a renunciation of arche in the sense of the controlling foresight of techne. As renunciation and a relinquishment of control, it is a step back. It is thus presumably a renunciation of politics, leaving the latter to its own fate. The an in an-arche is not a negation but a step back. The an-arche is also a-techne, i.e. a-technicism in a fundamental but easily misunderstandable sense, because no opposition to technology or negation of it is implied but rather a step back from technology. The step back does not have to land us back in the simplicity of peasant life. As renunciation of the primacy of technological knowledge, the step back does not imply having to do without electricity or PCs but opens up the horizon within which we define ourselves as human beings. It widens the view from entities as such to the openness of being as such. 11. There is silence and silenceWe have to ask whether Cage and Heidegger are talking about the same thing when they talk about silence. Probably they are not, coming at it as they do from completely different directions, the one as thinker, the other as composer. Presumably they are, to judge from some surprising similarities in their texts. Heidegger, steeped in the Western metaphysical tradition, comes to silence from there, perhaps via Meister Eckhart most of all. Cage, immersed in Indian and Zen thinking, comes to silence from there, but perhaps also via Meister Eckhart and above all by thinking about music. Where Cage discovers duration to be the most fundamental element of music, he is imagining linear time in a metaphysical manner, but where he talks about each sound being the Buddha in the openness of silence, he is, unknowingly, closer to Heidegger's thinking. Nowhere, however, does Cage talk about ecstatic time as the three-dimensional time-space, nor does he grapple with the Western tradition's texts on time, starting with Aristotle.Ecstatic time as rethought by Heidegger needs to be brought closer to what Cage has done with and to music, proceeding from what Heidegger has done with and to metaphysical thinking. In one of his late lectures from 1964 entitled 'The End of Philosophy and the Task of Thinking', Heidegger interprets once again Parmenides' fragments and comes to the "tranquil heart of the clearing" as the "place of stillness" (29). We take this text to flesh out the references above to time-space because allusions to the foursome of world, after having been prevalent in the fifties (30), are again absent. Only from this place of stillness, says Heidegger, can "presence presence". (ibid.)
Nearness passes over the play of time by passing one ecstasy of time to the other in a way that also keeps them apart. With respect to music, this passing concerns not the way sounds come and go but the clearing of time in which the sounds come and go. For Cage, this clearing is the silence he speaks about as primary, or "the space and emptiness that is finally urgently necessary", the space and emptiness in which "each sound may become the Buddha", but more importantly, the space and emptiness that can be experienced as such because of the sounds that come and go. Can this be heard in Cage's music? I think it can, precisely because his music is not a continuity of interrelated sounds but the bursting of sounds in the present. The sounds are not primary, they are not in the foreground, but they allow the openness of the time-space in which they sound to be experienced in its inaccessible and unmanipulable withdrawal. By not being interrelated in anything like a melody line constituting the continuity of the piece, each sound is a surprise, existing in and for itself and erupting into presence unannounced. Each sound does not contribute to a continuity or the development of an aural whole. The sound that has resounded is gone into the dimension of foregoneness and can only be recalled in the memory of the listener. Its presence is now refused in the present, leaving it open to other sounds arriving from the future. The foregone sound has not formed a basis for a continual development of sounds but is embedded in silence. Thus the refusal of the present can be experienced in not being heard. The sound sounds and is gone. It has no job to do in a larger continuity; it is sufficient in itself. It comes and goes into foregoneness without leaving a legacy, without building up anything to come that should proceed 'logically' from it. It does not draw another sound after itself but breaks off its ties with the present, leaving it open for anything to come. Although remembered by its auditors, the foregone sound leaves no preconceived aftereffects. This leaving-open is experienced in not being heard. The sound arriving from the future is not announced by a preceding development, it is not drawn out of the future by a continuity or a progression having gone before, but is held back in coming in the future before it arrives in the present. Not the sound that has not yet arrived is primarily to be experienced here but the holding back, the withholding itself of the future which nearness keeps separated from the present in holding it back. Out of the withholding of the future, the coming sound enters the present, unforeseen and unforeheard, to sound in and for itself. Not being part of a continuity, it is surrounded by the openness of silence. Thus the withholding of the future is experienced in not being heard. Cagean music is originarily silence as the three-dimensional clearing of time-space, and only secondarily defineable as something that can be heard. What Cage composes is not music as a putting together of sounds. His music is not primarily sound, and has nothing to do with Cage, because it is pregiven. Cage steps back before the clearing of time-space. His music makes the step back able to be experienced. It is doubtful whether Cage can be thought of as a composer in anything like the traditional sense. Perhaps he is indeed an amateur, a lover and absconds as a composer. Although Cage does not think his silence like Heidegger thinks his, there is every indication that Cage's music and Heidegger's thinking are based on one and the same experience of the clearing of time-space and the presencing within it. This silence cannot be determined at all with reference to sound (entities); it is thus also not the unintentional sound as which Cage sometimes defines it, but is the nothingness and rich emptiness of the clearing itself, the event of the opening up of time of which human being partakes and into which it is thrown. Cage's art and Heidegger's thinking, without having communicated with each other, belong to the same historical event of the end of metaphysics and the step back. In a first approximation, Cage's art can be described negatively as a departure from techne, the renunciation of technique as foreknowledge and foreknowledge as technique. But where does this step back lead? It leads to nothing, namely, to the nothingness of the clearing of time-space, the event of presencing in the clearing. In this way, Cage's artless art can be thought positively. It is simplicity itself, which is the hardest of all to experience and grasp. Thus Cage can say that art is like "getting bitten by a monkey". Why? Because experiencing art and getting bitten by a monkey can both only happen in the primordial clearing of time-space. There is nothing essential to distinguish art from life once one takes leave of art as techne. Cage is the artist absconditus and thus an important historical figure prefiguring a possible step back from a directedness towards entities. Only the open clearing of time-space is originary; no entity can take on the role of the event of being, even if one calls this entity God. The sounds may become Buddha, but only within the originary emptiness. The event of time-space reaches us as humans and makes us into human beings by calling us into the clearing. We do not only take in what happens, the events that occur, the entities that impinge on us, but more originarily, the play of presencing itself. This is what Heidegger calls the event or the happening. The happening happens, and that's all there is to it. On this basis, art can only become artless, amateurish and the artist a lover, doing things "in the dark". 12. Cage's technological credulityAfter having said all this about Cage's daring and breathtaking departure from Western techne, it comes as a surprise and disappointment to find him, later in life, naively believing in technological progress as a cure-all for the ills of humankind. But his adherence to the viewpoints of the American technological Utopian, Buckminster Fuller, amounts to nothing less. An irrepressible optimism bordering on simple-mindedness becomes noticeable. By means of the enormous increases in productivity made possible by technology, the problem of the distribution of the world's resources is to be solved. There is a big shift in Cage's concerns from the mid-sixties on, which goes so far as the following tit-bit, published in the third part of his Diary in 1967:
Cage's technological credulity is an offspring of American pragmatism, a way of thinking that he was apparently imbued with by his father, the inventor. In this attitude there is something of the conviction of being able to do anything if you just put your mind to it. As a late variant of metaphysics, pragmatism is embedded in metaphysical presuppositions it cannot think through from within itself. The step back that Cage performs with his art, however, makes the knowing of technology visible as being a possibility only granted by the clearing of being. The doability resulting from technological know-how cannot be an originary ethos because it depends on the more originary openness of being in which entities can appear as entities. On the basement floor level of the clearing of being, there is no know-how but instead the mooded acceptance of being, which precedes even the acceptance of beings. Being can only be accepted because it grants itself to human being-there. The clearing of time-space first provides the opening for entities to come and go. At first it is not important how and why they come and go, but simply that they come and go as they are, that is, as entities. This givenness of entities as they are by the event of being means that what is there accidentally, at random, by chance, at haphazard is on an equal footing with what can be explained, theorized, controlled, which, in fact, constitutes only a small part of what happens in the clearing of the truth of being. In emulating Fuller, Cage treats technology as a means for solving humanity's problems. What stands in the way is allegedly private property, divisive intelligence, dog eat dog politics and the like. Cage demands a global way of thinking and problem-solving rather than a particularistic one. In view of the global village, his message is: come together. He regards wars, etc. as "part of dying political and economic structures" (36), as if capitalism were coming of its own accord to an end to give way to anarchistic cooperation. Economics and politics are singled out as what has to be done away with.
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